cruzi infection (n = 17).

The subjects included in the analysis were younger than those who were excluded (mean ages were 68.9 years (standard deviation (SD), 7.0) and 72.4 years (SD, 9.3), respectively; p < 0.001). The baseline prevalence of T. cruzi infection was 37.5%, comprising 524 and 874 BGB324 mouse participants in the T. cruzi-infected and non-infected groups, respectively. Females were predominant in both groups (67.9% and 56.5%, respectively). The median BNP level was 80 pg/mL (interquartile range (IQ) 43–148), with significantly higher values in the T. cruzi-infected than in the non-infected group (median BNP 121 pg/mL (IQ, 63–204.5) versus 64 pg/mL (IQ 34–112), respectively). Regarding the anthropometric measures, BMI was significantly lower in the T. cruzi-infected than in the non-infected group (24.3 (SD 5.0) versus 25.5

(SD 4.8), respectively). Waist circumference (89.2 cm (SD 11.2) versus 92.4 cm (SD 11.0)) and triceps skin-fold thickness (14.5 mm (IQ 10.2–22.2) versus 16.0 mm (IQ 11.0–23.0)) EPZ5676 nmr were significantly lower in infected than in non-infected individuals. Overall participant characteristics and characteristics for each group are depicted in Table 1. We found an inverse relationship between BNP levels and BMI, which was independent of age and sex (B = −0.024; 95% CI −0.034 to −0.013; p < 0.001). This association remained highly significant in the fully adjusted model (B = −0.018; Inositol monophosphatase 1 95% CI −0.028 to −0.008; p < 0.001). We also found an inverse association between waist circumference and BNP levels in the age–sex adjusted model (B = −0.008; 95% CI −0.013 to −0.004; p < 0.001) and in the fully adjusted model (B = −0.005; 95% CI −0.010 to −0.001; p < 0.05). Furthermore, an inverse relationship between BNP levels and triceps skin-fold thickness was also found in both univariate and adjusted models (B = −0.193; 95% CI −0.306 to −0.081; p < 0.01) Both T. cruzi-infected (B = −0.021; 95% CI −0.039 to −0.005; p = 0.013) and non-infected (B = −0.015; 95% CI −0.028 to −0.003; p = 0.017)

subjects showed a significant inverse association between BNP levels and BMI. Statistically significant associations between BNP levels and waist circumference (B = −0.009; 95% CI −0.017 to −0.002; p = 0.017) and triceps skin-fold thickness (B = −0.328; 95% CI −0.517 to −0.139; p = 0.001) were verified among T. cruzi-infected subjects; however, this association was not statistically significant in the non-infected group (B = −0.003; CI −0.008 to 0.002; p = 0.222 and B = −0.105; CI −0.246 to 0.362; p = 0.145, respectively). In addition, the differences of the regression coefficients between the infected and non-infected groups were not statistically significant for any of the anthropometric measures considered in the present analysis (p-values = 0.562, 0.178 and 0.390 for BMI, waist circumference and log triceps skin-fold, respectively). See Fig.

e. under threat of photoinhibition). An important aspect of our work to date aiming to construct an effective SatBałtyk GSK458 operational system included the successful attempts to expand the applicability of the earlier DESAMBEM algorithms by linking them

up with the packet of algorithms from the BALTFOS Forecasting System. The latter are based on forecasting models and procedures for their calibration by the assimilation of satellite data and other data obtained using the diagnostic subalgorithms of the DESAMBEM (see Figure 1 in Part 1 of Woźniak et al. (2011), in this issue). As we have already stated, this is essential in the case of the Baltic, where frequent cloudiness partially or entirely precludes the use of satellite sensors for recording radiation in the visible and thermal infra-red bands for diagnosing various parameters of the marine environment (including chlorophyll concentration and SST). In such Galunisertib mw cases, interpolation (between points in time-space) of measurements remotely sensed in cloud-free areas is often resorted to. Our trials

with respect to SST interpolations in cloudy areas have shown that such geostatic methods would not be very effective in an operational system for the Baltic, because of the long periods for which cloudiness persists there. In our opinion, the most effective and reliable approach would be to use data generated by prognostic hydrodynamic and eco-hydrodynamic models, which assimilate data calibrated with data from satellite estimates and/or data generated using the DESAMBEM algorithm. This is shown by the results of filling

IMP dehydrogenase in the SST map of the Baltic carried out in various ways for 28 April 2009 (11:52 UTC), shown in Figure 9. The SST maps are drawn with the aid of a NLSST algorithm ( Walton et al. 1998, Krężel et al. 2005) for cloudless areas on the basis of satellite data recorded with an AVHRR sensor (TIROS-N/NOAA). On that day most of the Baltic Sea area was overcast, and estimating SST from satellite data and using diagnostic algorithms was possible for only small areas of the sea (see Figure 9b). The area overcast on that day had been ‘seen’ by the satellite four days earlier, i.e. on 25 April 2009 at 19:15 UTC (see the SST distribution in Figure 9a). Kriging interpolation with the aid of linear regression was applied to these data to make up the missing SST data on the cloudy 28 April 2009 (see the SST distribution in Figure 9d). Another way of filling in gaps in SST fields in overcast areas is to use prognostic models. Figure 9e shows the remotely sensed distribution of SST in which overcast areas ( Figure 9b) have been replaced by results supplied by the M3D hydrodynamic model ( Kowalewski 1997, Kowalewski & Kowalewska-Kalkowska 2011).

, 2009). It has been suggested that guanosine

(GUA) exhibits neuroprotective effects in a variety of in vitro and in vivo models of neurotoxicity that involve the over-activation of glutamatergic receptors ( Schmidt et al., 2007). The exact molecular mechanism(s) involved in the neuroprotection afforded by GUA is still unknown, but seems to be related to a decrease of extracellular glutamate levels, by stimulating astrocytic glutamate uptake ( Frizzo et al., 2001 and Schmidt et al., 2007). In the light of this knowledge, the aim of our study was to investigate the protective effect of GUA in rats against sepsis-induced oxidative stress in key brain regions associated with sepsis and in cognitive dysfunction.

Male Wistar rats (2–3 months, 220–310 g) CP868596 were obtained from our breeding colony at UNESC. The animals were housed in groups of five per cage with food and water available ad libitum, and were maintained on a 12 h light/dark cycle (lights on at 7:00 am). All experimental procedures APO866 in vitro involving animals were performed in accordance with the guidelines established by the National Institutes of Health (Bethesda, Md) Guide for Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and the Brazilian Society for Neuroscience and Behavior (SBNeC) recommendations for animal care. All protocols performed were approved by the ethics committee of UNESC. Rats were subjected to CLP as previously described (Ritter et al., 2003). Briefly, they were anesthetized with a mixture of ketamine (80 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg), given intraperitoneally. Under aseptic conditions, a 3-cm midline laparotomy was performed to expose the cecum and adjoining intestine. The cecum was tightly ligated with a 3.0 silk C-X-C chemokine receptor type 7 (CXCR-7) suture at its base, below the ileocecal valve, and was perforated once with 14-gauge needle. The cecum was then squeezed gently to extrude a small amount of feces through the perforation site. The cecum was then returned to the peritoneal cavity, and the laparotomy was

closed with 4.0 silk sutures. Animals were resuscitated with regular saline (50 mL/kg) subcutaneously (s.c.) immediately after and 12 h after CLP. All animals received basic support (saline at 50 mL/kg immediately after and 12 h after CLP plus antibiotics (ceftriaxone at 30 mg/kg and clindamycin 25 mg/kg) every 6 h, s.c. All animals were returned to their cages with free access to food and water. In the sham-operated group, the rats were submitted to all surgical procedures but the cecum was neither ligated nor perforated. GUA obtained from Sigma (St. Louis, MO, USA) was dissolved in 10 μM NaOH. The solutions were prepared immediately before use and were protected from the light during the experiments. Immediately after CLP, rats received either daily intraperitoneal (i.p.

In addition to the respiratory tract tissues, the following organs were fixed, processed, and histopathologically examined to clarify whether long-term MS inhalation induced any extra-pulmonary carcinogenesis by in this www.selleckchem.com/products/pirfenidone.html model: both adrenal glands, aorta abdominalis, bone (os femoris with joint), bone marrow (cervical, thoracic,

sternum, lumbar, os femoris), brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem, hippocampus, paraventricular parts), caecum, diaphragm, ductus thoracicus, both epididymes, eye with optic nerve, gall bladder, gross lesions observed, Harderian glands, heart (left and right ventricle, septum), small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), large intestine (colon, rectum), both kidneys and ureters, both lacrimal glands (infraorbitalis, extraorbitalis), liver, lymph nodes (axillary, bronchial, cervical, inguinal, mandibular, mediastinal, mesenteric, paraaortic, poplietus), mammary gland, mucosa (mouth), muscle (skeletal), nerve (sciatic), esophagus, olfactory bulb, both ovaries and the mesovarium, selleck compound pancreas, pituitary, both preputial glands, prostate, salivary glands (submandibular, parotid), both seminal vesicles, skin, spleen, sternum, stomach and forestomach, both testes, thymus, both thyroids (including parathyroids), tissue masses or tumors, tongue (inclusive base), urethra, urinary bladder, uterus (including cervix and

both uterine horns and oviducts), and vagina. Histopathological Niclosamide preparations of respiratory tract organs were performed at Philip Morris Research Laboratories GmbH, Cologne, Germany. The histopathological evaluation was performed by Histovia GmbH, Overath, Germany. All pulmonary proliferative lesions were classified according to international classifications and criteria (Brambilla et al., 2001 and Dungworth

et al., 2001). Histopathological preparations of non-respiratory tract organs were performed by the Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology GmbH & Co KG, Hamburg, Germany. The histopathological examination was performed by Toxicologic Pathology Consultancy (Kiel, Germany). Classification of neoplastic lesions in the various organs except the lungs was performed (according to the criteria defined by Mohr, 2001). All histopathological examinations were performed without knowledge of the treatment groups. Gene expression analysis was performed on lung tumor samples from the MS-300 and sham control groups. Frozen sections (20 μm) from whole lung tissue were placed on sterilized glass slides and stained with cresyl violet. Total tissues from single lung tumors were collected from these slides using laser capture micro-dissection (Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) except of one slide, which was preserved for the histopathological characterization of the tumor. The tumor tissues were immediately lysed with Qiazol lysis buffer (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany).

Marker-assisted breeding can be improved by leveraging whole-genome sequencing and genome-wide molecular markers in appropriate germplasm and growing locations [48]. Genome-wide markers will improve the accuracy of breeding value estimates, make breeding cycles more rapid, and make selection based on phenotypes more efficient [49]. Genotypic and phenotypic data used for GWAS could also be used directly for genomic selection, which uses weighted predictors of phenotypic values based on a training data set, unlike GWAS per se. Furthermore, the

resolution of GWAS could be greatly improved, so that small-effect loci can be identified by high-throughput genotyping such as chip technology and genotyping by sequencing as performed in this study. All evidence indicates that the P1 locus did not undergo neutral evolution in temperate maize and was affected by post-domestication Olaparib selection or improvement. The novel information was generated

in this study through chip-based genotyping and resequencing and analytical results have provided further insights into the ways by which maize breeding efforts have affected its genome evolution. This study was supported by the Chinese National “863” Program from the China Ministry of Science and Technology (Grant No. 2012AA10A306-3), the National Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 31171562) to CX, and the Core Research Budget of the Non-profit Governmental Research Institution from the Chinese Government to the Institute of selleckchem Crop Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (Grant No. 2012001). Authors’ contributions: Chuanxiao Xie and Xinhai Li conceived and designed the experiments. Jianfeng Weng, Chuanxiao Xie, and Mingshun Li performed the experiments. Chuanxiao Xie, Jianfeng Weng, Cheng Zou, Zhuanfang Hao, and Wen-Xue Li contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools. Chuanxiao Xie, IMP dehydrogenase Yunbi Xu, and Jianfeng Weng wrote the paper. Xinhai Li, Shihuang Zhang, and Yunbi Xu coordinated the research. “
“Marker-assisted selection (MAS) has proven to be an effective

tool in crop improvement. A prerequisite for successful MAS is to identify markers in close proximity to the genetic factors or genes controlling simple qualitative and complex quantitative traits of interest. Two approaches have been developed and applied to mapping genes in numerous plant species [1]: linkage mapping approach, which uses segregating populations derived from two parental lines, and association mapping that exploits biodiversity observed in germplasm collections of landraces, cultivars, and breeding lines [2]. The linkage mapping approach is limited to the variation between the two parents. Also, development of segregating populations may take several years if recombined inbred line populations are used for mapping [3] and [4]. The association mapping approach, which is based on linkage disequilibrium (LD), uses a collection of germplasm with a wide range of phenotypic and genetic variation [1].

Directed evolution of KE59 required to introduce stabilizing mutations and resulted in 2000 fold increase in catalytic activity [22]. Optimization increased hydrophobicity Selleck Depsipeptide of the active site and raised the pKa of the catalytic base by desolvation. Orientation of the functional groups was adjusted by mutations at the rim, which affected active site geometry via changing dynamics [ 26]. An alternative rotamer of Trp-109 resulted in a stabilizing interaction with the general base, which contributed to improving activity. The HG-3 design was based on the catalytic antibody 34E4 and was optimized by a combination of crystallography

and MD [27•]. It employed an aspartate (D127) as the general base, aromatic residues to provide π-stacking for substrate interactions and polar residues (serine, threonine, glutamine) to donate a hydrogen bond to the isoxazolic oxygen of the 5-nitrobenzisoxazole. This Kemp eliminase design was evolved to the most efficient artificial catalyst, with kcat of 700 s−1, which provided 6 × 108 fold rate acceleration as compared to the uncatalyzed reaction [ 6••]. Activity of the HG3.17 variant originated in the extremely tight fit of the substrate, which was also enabled by a shortened hydrogen bond to the general base Asp127. It is often believed that tight packing, which was also observed in evolution of other designs [ 31 and 33], contributes to catalysis by

desolvating the substrate. Selleck PD0332991 In case of HG-3 however, similar pH profiles of the original

design and the evolved variant argue against medium effect. Hydrophobic contacts on the other hand can also optimize the arrangement of the functional groups and result in better preorganization. In the evolved HG3.17 Kemp eliminase the network of hydrogen- bonding interactions, which was enabled by the alternative substrate conformation, provided better stabilization GBA3 of the negatively charged TS. Although the original KE07 design was optimized for ground state desolvation, its laboratory evolution improved electrostatic preorganization around the TS [ 39 and 43]. To assess how this effect improves in enzyme evolution, reorganization energies of the original and the evolved KE07 variants were determined [ 28•]. Free energy profiles of the designed and the evolved KE07 variants were calculated by Free Energy Perturbation/Umbrella Sampling techniques resulting in activation barriers in good agreement with the experiments [37]. Although the reorganization energy of the KE07 design was less favorable than that of the corresponding reaction in water, it decreased significantly in directed evolution (by 27.4 kcal mol−1). Analyzing different contributions to the catalytic effect in the original and the evolved KE07 enzyme indicated that the reorganization energy was the most sensitive component of the catalytic effect, which was also amenable to optimization by directed evolution.

Therefore, the GPS may be considered insufficient for prognostication. There is SB203580 in vitro an increasing evidence that platelet count and NLR can be used for prognostication in patients with several types of cancer [11] and [12]. Recently, Ishizuka et al. [13] showed that COP-NLR is considered to be a useful predictor of postoperative survival in patients with colorectal cancer. They showed that COP-NLR is easy to measure routinely because of its low cost and convenience [13]. Therefore, we conducted a study to determine whether COP-NLR is useful for predicting long-term survival in patients with ESCC. In our study, we demonstrated

that COP-NLR (P = .003) was significantly associated with CSS. Moreover, our study showed a similar HR between COP-NLR and GPS. In addition, the AIC and BIC values were similar between COP-NLR and GPS, indicating that COP-NLR predicts survival in ESCC similar to GPS. The potential limitations of the present study include the use of a retrospective analysis and the Galunisertib short duration of the mean follow-up duration. In addition, we excluded patients who had adjuvant chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy, which may have influenced our analysis. Furthermore, AIC and BIC values were not correct if follow-up differed between patients, and the results of the study should therefore be regarded with caution. Thus, larger prospective studies will need to be performed to confirm

these preliminary results. In summary, our study showed that both GPS and COP-NLR are associated with tumor progression and can be considered as independent markers in patients with ESCC. We conclude that COP-NLR predicts survival in ESCC similar to GPS. However, larger prospective studies will need to be performed to confirm these preliminary results. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. “
“Melanoma is a malignant tumor of melanocytes, with a high potential to develop metastases. In the last few decades, the incidence of melanoma has increased Sclareol substantially worldwide [1] and [2].

The annual growth rate of incidence is approximately 3% to 5%. Genetic, phenotypical, and environmental factors are involved in melanoma developing [3]. The manifestation and prognosis are significantly different between Asian and white populations. The subtype of superficial spreading melanoma is common in white patients, which is clearly associated with sunlight exposure [4]. Studies have confirmed that mutations of p16 located in the chromosome 9 or CDKN2A is the main genetic susceptibility of melanoma [5]. However, the most frequent subtypes of melanoma in Asian patients are acral lentiginous melanoma (AM) and mucosal melanoma (MM) [6] and [7]. The primary lesions were not always exposed to the ultraviolet, so the specific causative factor for increasing melanoma incidence in China was still unclear [6]. Lysosome-associated protein transmembrane 4 beta (LAPTM4B), is a new gene first cloned in hepatocellular carcinoma [8].

This behaviour was not absolute, however. MUPs stimulate the VNO, and the extent to which the VSN activation pattern differed between self and non-self MUP combinations correlated with the probability of countermarking to non-self [18••]. In other words, male mice may make quantitative judgements on when to countermark by pattern matching against their own MUP code. As MUP profiles get more similar with genetic-relatedness [31], this mechanism could underpin a range of male-male interactions

NU7441 in complex social hierarchies. In recent years it has become clear that mammalian pheromones promote behaviour through a number of different mechanisms. While further examples of monomolecular signals initiating an innate behaviour via a single sensory circuit may well be found, it appears likely that complicated coding strategies NVP-BKM120 clinical trial have evolved to support

the complexity, and flexibility, of mammalian social behaviour. It is open to debate whether these signals, involving individuality and learning and often requiring context, meet the classical definition of a pheromone. Indeed some argue that mammalian pheromones do not exist at all [32], while others have proposed helpful modifications to classical definitions to encompass these new mechanisms 2 and 33]. Putting semantics aside, it is clear that the use of defined chemical stimuli to provoke behaviour has, and will continue, to shed insight into the social lives of mammals. Nothing declared. Papers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as: • of special interest The author thanks Ximena Ibarra-Soria and Gabriela Sánchez-Andrade for comments on this manuscript. I am supported by the Wellcome Trust (Grant No. 098051) and the EMBO Young Investigator Programme. “
“Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 2015, 1:xx–yy This review comes from a themed

issue on Cognitive neuroscience Edited by Cindy Lustig and Howard Eichenbaum http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2014.07.005 2352-1546/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Decades’ worth of research documents the involvement of the hippocampus in rapidly encoding new episodes, which are then transferred (i.e., consolidated) to neocortex over time. However, memory is a dynamic phenomenon. The once widely accepted view Progesterone that such consolidated memories are immune to modification has since been refuted. Consolidated memories may be reactivated during new experiences, at which point they become susceptible to distortion, deletion, or updating 1, 2 and 3. Conversely, reactivated memories may also influence how new content is encoded 4•• and 5. Here, we review the recent work in cognitive and behavioral neuroscience that investigates the complex ways in which memories influence one another and change over time. One way such mutual influence may occur is through memory integration.

, 1998 and Ohta et al., 2009) or the PPARγ-agonist and human-specific hepatotoxicant troglitazone at physiologically relevant concentrations (Loi et al., 1999 and Yokoi, 2010). The cytotoxicity of the tested drugs was DNA Damage inhibitor assessed by the release of LDH from cells into the media. The amount of viable and metabolically active cells upon drug-treatment was determined via quantitation of ATP (see Materials and methods section). Rat and human 3D liver cells were treated for 1 to 15 days and 2D hepatocyte monolayers for 2 days with

increasing concentrations of fenofibrate (including the human Cmax of 12.4 μM (Table 1, (Vlase et al., 2010)). Fenofibrate induced dose- and time-dependent toxicity in rat 3D liver model (Fig. 4A) as detected by increased LDH

release and decreased ATP levels upon 15 days treatment. Fenofibrate- induced cytotoxicity in the rat 3D liver model was apparent starting from day 8 of chronic drug treatment. However almost no cytotoxicity was detected after 1–2 days of fenofibrate treatment neither in the rat 3D liver model nor in the rat 2D hepatocyte monolayer cultures (Fig. 4A). Fenofibrate decreased the ATP levels by about 20% in rat 2D hepatocyte monolayers after 2 days of treatment and by 80% in rat 3D liver cells after 15 days of treatment (Fig. 4A). In human 3D liver cells and 2D hepatocytes monolayers, fenofibrate did not induce dose- or time-dependent toxicity (Fig. 4A). Next, we treated rat and human 3D liver cells for 8 days and 2D hepatocyte monolayer cultures for 2 days with increasing concentrations of troglitazone GSK-3 activation (including human Cmax of 6.3 μM (Table 1), (Loi et al., 1999)) and measured cytotoxicity and viability of the cells. Troglitazone caused a dose- and time-dependent increase in LDH release and a decrease in ATP levels

in human 3D liver cells but less toxicity was detected in human 2D hepatocyte monolayers (Fig. 4B). Troglitazone induced strong LDH release at physiological ID-8 relevant concentrations already after 1 day of treatment of human 3D liver cells. The LDH release was more pronounced after 1 day than after 8 days treatment at 50–100 μM, indicating an early effect of this drug on human hepatic cells. In contrast to the results obtained in human 3D liver cells, rat 3D liver cultures did not show marked cytotoxicity and no pronounced decrease in cell viability when incubated with similar concentrations of troglitazone. These results are in line with the data from previous studies demonstrating no troglitazone toxicity in rats at physiological relevant concentrations (Fig. 4B, (Li et al., 2002)). However, troglitazone induced strong increase in cytotoxicity and decrease in cell viability in rat 2D hepatocytes after 2 days of treatment (Fig. 4B). We investigated whether human 3D liver models would detect toxicity induced by drugs known to be hepatotoxic in the clinic (Kaplowitz, 2005).

8 ± 1.4 au, Fig. 4E), compared to controls (21.1 ± 0.6 au, Fig. 4A). The lower intensity of green fluorescence in controls (high green, Fig. 4A), is due to the lack of JC-1 monomers present in cells, as under control conditions monomers form aggregates in mitochondria and fluoresce red, lowering the overall intensity of green fluorescence, indicating healthy living cells [42]. The higher peak of fluorescent intensity (high green, Fig. 4E) shows damaged cells with depolarized mitochondria.

Fig. 4A and B along with Fig. 4E and F show that intact and damaged mitochondria are accurately distinguished from debris with a fluorescence threshold. The mitochondrial membrane potential of events identified as cells (from Fig. 4) were also assessed using a one parameter histogram of the intensity of red fluorescence. Fluorouracil supplier The red fluorescence intensity of J-aggregates from the mitochondrial

DNA/RNA Synthesis inhibitor polarization assay JC-1 and the corresponding light scatter properties of HUVEC are presented in Fig. 5. The forward and side light scatter properties of control (Fig. 5A), and plunged (Fig. 5B), samples are presented with a corresponding histogram of JC-1 red fluorescence (Fig. 5C). The high red fluorescence in control cells (red peak, Fig. 5C), is from the formation of J-aggregates present in cells with polarized mitochondria, whereas the low red fluorescence of plunged cells (blue peak, Fig. 5C), occurs when mitochondria are depolarized. Cells with high red fluorescence and corresponding high forward and high side scatter properties indicate cells with intact mitochondria (red) and cells with low red fluorescence and low forward scatter properties indicate cells with damaged mitochondria (blue). JC-1 not only discriminates cells from debris but also reflects the functional capacity of HUVEC based on the polarized state of their mitochondria O-methylated flavonoid indicated by the presence of red fluorescent

J-aggregates. Light scatter is used as a key parameter in flow cytometry to reveal information about cell size and morphological characteristics that can aid in the identification of cell types and subpopulations; however the relationship between light and particle properties is complex. Since Mullaney et al. demonstrated a relationship between forward light scatter and cell volume under the assumption that cells were homogenous spheres with a uniform refractive index [27] a common generalization has emerged that light scatter in the forward direction gives an estimation of cell size. Though volume does play a major role, there are limitations to this generalization, and it has been shown that with polystyrene latex microspheres forward scattered light increases with diameter in a non-linear manner [39], indicating that other factors are also involved.