44 A similar concept could be applied to models of anxiety disorders, where early life events have also been shown to influence the anxious phenotype. Thus, rat pups born from mothers having been stressed during pregnancy

tend to be more anxious than their counterparts raised by non-stressed mothers.45-47 This phenomenon, called adaptive phenotypic plasticity, which has a limited range, or ”norm of reaction,“ 48 is the basis for Darwinian fitness49 and is mediated in part by epigenetic mechanisms: gene expression is modulated to fit the most probable environmental demands during the lifetime of the individual.50 Mismatch occurs when the expected conditions Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are not met in later life, eg, when early adverse conditions increase the sensitivity of the stress-response systems and when Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical this hypersensitivity remains even when environmental pressure becomes lower in adulthood. Indeed, most individuals seem to adapt to this type of change in environmental conditions (a phenomenon known as ”resilience“), but a few fail to do so—a situation which is somehow reminiscent of what is observed in lear conditioning when extinction of learned fear does not occur, as described above. For this reason, it has been recently proposed that the basis for vulnerability to

disease Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical could involve genes (yet to be discovered) that would be responsible for different forms of brain Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and behavioral plasticity.51 Behavioral flexibility is a form of plasticity that may favor optimal coping17,48 and therefore decrease the risk of developing a pathology—or increase resilience, a phenomenon that certainly

deserves more attention in future studies. The term “dysadaptation” has been used previously in ophtalmology to describe “[...] the inability of the retina and iris to accommodate well to varying intensities of light.” 52 By analogy, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical this term could be applied to anxiety disorders, inasmuch as it would describe “the inability of Ruxolitinib purchase defence/coping mechanisms to adapt to varying degrees of threat,” or the individual’s inability to evaluate correctly the risks actually associated with signals of danger (perceived threat). The term “dysadaptation” Carfilzomib seems to be better suited than “maladaptation,” in the sense that the psychophysiological and behavioral responses are still potentially adaptive, but inappropriate to the context, or the situation (the mismatch hypothesis). Animal models and tests What is a model? In biomedical research, a model is usually described as an experimental setup or protocol (sometimes also called “a paradigm”) developed in a nonhuman species with the aim of replicating humans physiological, pathophysiological, or behavioral features.