8 Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase–mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick-end labeling staining and histopathological examination of liver tissue indicated that cell death was necrotic and not apoptotic in nature. Hepatic injury was mediated by intestinally-derived CD4+ T cells during infection and could be mitigated by blocking their entry into the liver. 9 Moreover, transfer of these cells from IL-10 KO mice to recombination activation gene 2 KO animals reproduced the disease, and this suggested that this lymphocyte subset alone was sufficient for inciting injury. Type 2 cytokine production, particularly IL-4 synthesis, was prominent in the infected IL-10 KO liver. 9 Therefore, we hypothesized

that IL-4 promoted inflammation Selleckchem 3MA and necrosis during infection in IL-10 KO mice. The infection of singly and doubly deficient animals revealed that lesion development was dependent on IL-4 in IL-10 KO mice (Fig. 1A). buy Ponatinib While multifocal lesions were grossly

and histologically visible in IL-10 KO animals, they were completely absent in IL-10/IL-4 KO mice. Lesions were characterized by central necrosis that was surrounded by mononuclear and polymorphonuclear cells. Although liver tissue from infected IL-10/IL-4 KO mice appeared to contain more leukocytes than that from WT animals, areas of hepatocellular necrosis were not detected. Neither WT nor IL-4 KO mice acquired hepatic lesions (Fig. 1B). As we reported previously, serum ALT activity Pembrolizumab in vivo at 12 days post-infection was significantly greater in infected IL-10 KO mice compared to WT mice (Fig. 1C). 9 Infection did not lead to an increase in ALT values in IL-4 KO mice, and this indicated a lack of hepatocyte damage. In contrast, ALT levels in infected IL-10/IL-4 KO mice rose significantly above WT levels but were not different from those in IL-10 KO mice. When considered with

the histological evidence, the results suggested that initial hepatocyte injury occurred in the absence of IL-10, but the evolution of organized necrotic lesions required IL-4. We considered, however, that differences in parasite burden between IL-10 KO and IL-10/IL-4 KO mice might affect lesion development. Accordingly, we counted intestinal worm numbers as an indication of the load that the liver received during the acute phase of infection and found no differences, suggesting that the disparity in hepatic response was due not to parasite burden but rather reflected differences in immunity (data not shown). Immune-mediated hepatic injury is the result of effector leukocyte recruitment and activity, and we find enumeration of hepatic leukocytes to be a sensitive indicator of inflammation. Both infected IL-10 KO and IL-10/IL-4 KO mice had elevated numbers of hepatic leukocytes in comparison with WT mice, implying that IL-10 regulated the total leukocyte content within the liver independently of IL-4 (Fig. 1D).