In most of the LMICs studied, participants in urban settings were more likely to live in a smoke-free home compared with those from rural settings. This could partially be Modulators explained by the typical enclosed structure of urban dwellings, which prevents smoke from dissipating to the outside environment and make smoke undesirable in this setting, compared with BKM120 molecular weight the rural

dwellings which typically have more open space, that would allow the smoke to dissipate faster into the surrounding outer environment thereby minimizing discomfort due to the smoke. We used nationally representative GATS data from 15 LMICs, which include some of the most populous nations of the world. We found a consistent association between being employed in a smoke-free workplace and living in a smoke-free home across these vastly differing cultural settings, which have different smoking prevalence rates and varying implementation of tobacco control policies, including smoke-free policies. Our data were cross-sectional and restricted our ability to determine causal direction. However, previous longitudinal studies conducted in high income countries have demonstrated that persons employed in a smoke-free workplace are more likely to live in a smoke-free home prospectively (Cheng et al., 2011, Cheng et al., 2013, Edwards et al., 2008 and Fong et al., 2006). Future longitudinal

studies should be undertaken see more in LMICs to rule out the possibility of reverse causation. Educational and occupational classifications varied and were not always comparable between GATS countries

e.g. occupation in China and education in Brazil. For these, we conducted sensitivity analyses after excluding these variables from the analyses and our results remained substantially unchanged. We relied else on self-reported measures for exposure to SHS at home and workplaces in the absence of biological markers such as cotinine levels. However, a good correlation has been shown between cotinine levels and self-reported measures in previous studies (Emmons et al., 1994). The United Nations High Level Meeting on non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in September 2011 recommended establishing tobacco-free workplaces as an important component for NCD prevention and control (United Nations, 2012). Our findings strengthen the case for rapid implementation of smoke-free policies in LMICs involving complete elimination of smoking and SHS exposure from workplaces. However, leadership and action at the national level by governments is the key for strengthening the implementation of smoke-free policies. The Government of Russian Federation recently demonstrated such leadership by enacting new comprehensive tobacco control policies, which resulted in smoke-free policies being extended beyond indoor public places to outdoor public places such as playgrounds and beaches from June 2013 (Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, 2013 and World Lung Foundation, 2013).