gov). Furthermore, a dose-escalating GSK3235025 solubility dmso phase I clinical trial was carried out in on-pump cardiac surgery patients undergoing coronary artery bypass or valve repair, who

were at high risk of developing postoperative acute kidney injury (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov; NCT00733876). Preliminary results have demonstrated that the MSC therapy resulted in no adverse effects. The postoperative length of stay and readmission rate of MSC-treated patients compared to historical matched controls was reduced by approximately 40%. All MSC-treated patients exhibited normal renal function in comparison to approximately 20% of the historical matched controls that developed acute kidney injury.53 Clinical trials investigating the use of MSC transplantation for the prevention of kidney transplant rejection and graft tolerance (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov; NCT00752479, NCT00658073 and NCT00734396), and the treatment of lupus nephritis (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov;

NCT00698191 and NCT00659217) are also currently underway. Despite the current data showing clinical efficacy, the precise manner in which MSC confer renoprotection is not understood. Initial experimental studies carried out Selleck Gemcitabine by Morigi et al.54 and Herrera et al.55 reported that the exogenous administration of MSC to mice with acute renal injury could promote both structural and functional renal repair via the transdifferentiation of MSC into tubular epithelium. However, follow up studies revealed that only 2.0–2.5% of the injected MSC showed engraftment,56 Dapagliflozin opposed to a previously reported 22% of cells.55 These reports demonstrate that the direct engraftment of exogenously administered, transdifferentiating MSC is not the predominant

mechanism in which MSC enhance renal repair. There is increasing evidence that MSC can elicit repair through paracrine and/or endocrine mechanisms, where they release trophic growth factors that modulate the immune response and consequently mediate repair.57–64 The ability of MSC to inhibit the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and secrete a variety of trophic growth factors that, promote angiogenesis, mitogenesis and proliferation while reducing apoptosis may collectively mediate the protective and regenerative effects in the kidney of laboratory rodents (summarized in Table 1).54–70 Recent studies,60,62 have shown that the administration of MSC following ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury result in a significant downregulation of the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ and suppression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) at 24 h post-IR injury. This was coupled with an upregulation of the anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-4, IL-10, basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), transforming growth factor (TGF)-α and Bcl-2, which resulted in a reduction in renal injury, increased tubular epithelial proliferation and improved renal function.