The percentage of both CD28null subsets expressing perforin and granzyme levels are increased further in patients with BOS with a greater percentage of CD28null/CD8+ cells expressing these cytotoxic molecules, suggesting that the CD28null/CD8+ subset is potentially the most cytotoxic subset. T cells have been shown to migrate to the lung and re-enter

the circulation and, as such, these cytotoxic cells identified in the peripheral blood of these patients may be reflective of cell populations in the lungs of these patients [18]. We have shown previously that BOS is associated with increased check details granzyme B, IFN-γ and TNF-α by CD4 and CD8 T cell subsets [2, 3]. We now show that CD28null CD4 and CD8 T cell subsets (not their CD28+ counterparts) Dactolisib are the producers

of these increased cytotoxic/proinflammatory molecules. The findings of a correlation between CD28null/CD8+ T cells and FEV1 suggest that this T cell subset may be associated with a decline in lung function. Our findings are consistent with other reports of CD28null/CD8+ T cells with high cytotoxic potential in other inflammatory diseases [19-21]. Interestingly, cytotoxic CD28null/CD8+ T cells containing high levels of perforin/granzyme have been shown to be increased in sputum from asthmatic patients [22]. Our present study shows that the percentage of both CD28+ and CD28null T cells producing IL-2 was decreased in stable patients compared with healthy controls (consistent with effective therapeutic strategy), while in BOS the percentage was increased, suggesting that strategies applied currently to suppress IL-2 production in BOS may be ineffective. To our knowledge, this

is the first study to show an increase in IL-2 production by both CD28+ and CD28null subsets in an inflammatory disease. While CD28 is the major co-stimulatory molecule on T cells, we hypothesized that following persistent antigenic stimulation, this molecule would be down-regulated and that other co-stimulatory molecules would then play an important Etomidate role in the co-stimulatory signal required for effective proliferation and cytokine production [6]. Consistent with this hypothesis, we showed that both CD137 and CD152 co-stimulatory molecules were up-regulated on CD28null (both CD4+ and CD8+) T cells in BOS, suggesting that alternate co-stimulation to CD28 may be important in the production of cytotoxic T cells at the time of graft failure. CD154 and CD134 expression was also increased on CD28null T cells, but only on the CD4+ subset, suggesting that these co-stimulatory molecules may be important in CD28null/CD4+ proliferation and cytokine production, and targeting these molecules may have potential in reducing CD28null/CD4+ driven inflammation.