PL was excited with an argon ion laser (514 nm), dispersed with a 0.5-m monochromator and detected with a thermo-cooled GaInAs photodetector. Results and discussion Figure 1a shows the experimental data of magnetoresistance measurements at various temperatures for one set of the N-containing and N-free as-grown samples. It is known that SdH oscillations can be observed in high magnetic fields (μB > 1) in low mobility samples and at low temperatures (k B T < ℏω C ). Since doping amount is the same in all samples, carrier mobility is an important factor to be able to observe SdH oscillations. As seen in Figure 1, the SdH oscillations start at lower magnetic fields for N-free samples

as an indication of higher carrier mobility in N-free samples. It is worth noting that we observed higher mobility in N-free samples in a previous work (see [8]). Figure 1 SdH oscillations. (a) Raw experimental magnetoresistance KU55933 data and (b) second derivative of the SdH oscillations at different temperatures for the as-grown N-free (y = 0) and N-containing (y = 0.009) samples. The observed decrease of the amplitude of SdH oscillations with increasing temperature can be expressed by an analytical function [17–19]: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) where Δρ xx ,  ρ 0,  E F,  E 1,  ω c ,  m *,  τ q , and μ q are the oscillatory magnetoresistivity, zero-field

resistivity, Fermi energy, first subband energy, cyclotron 4��8C frequency, effective mass, quantum lifetime of 2D carriers, and carrier mobility, respectively. The i represents the subbands. In Equation 1, the temperature dependence Belnacasan supplier of the amplitude of the oscillations is included in the function D(χ). The exponential function in Equation 1

represents the damping of the oscillations due to the collision-induced broadening of Landau levels. The contribution of the higher subbands appears in SdH oscillations with different periodicity. We observed that the SdH oscillations has only one period, selleck kinase inhibitor indicating that only the lowest subband is occupied. The observation of diminishing minima is an indication of absence of background magnetoresistance and presence of 2D carrier gas. As seen in Figure 1a, the SdH oscillations are suppressed by either a positive (for N-free sample) or a negative (especially for n-type N-containing sample) background magnetoresistance. The minima of SdH oscillations decrease as the magnetic field increases for p-type N-containing samples due to negligible negative magnetoresistance than that of n-type sample. As for N-free samples, a pronounced positive magnetoresistance causes minima to increase with the magnetic field. The origin of the positive magnetoresistance is parallel conduction due to undepleted carriers in barrier layer, herein GaAs. On the other hand, the weak localization effect leads to negative magnetoresistance [19, 20].

CrossRef 12. Dennis CA, Videler H, Pauptit RA, Wallis R, James R, Moore GR, Kleanthous C: A structural comparison

of the colicin immunity proteins Im7 and Im9 gives new insights into the molecular determinants of immunity-protein specificity. Biochem J 1998, 333:183–191.PubMed 13. Guo FS, Adhya S: Spiral structure of Escherichia coli HU alpha beta provides foundation for DNA supercoiling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007,104(11):4309–4314.PubMedCentrallearn more PubMedCrossRef 14. Vogel T, Singer MF: The effect of Superhelicity on the interaction of Histone f1 with closed circular duplex DNA. J Biol Chem 1976,251(8):2334–2338.PubMed 15. Kuhar I, van Putten JPM, selleckchem Zgur-Bertok D, Gaastra W, Jordi B: Codon-usage based regulation of colicin K synthesis by the stress alarmone ppGpp. Mol Microbiol 2001,41(1):207–216.PubMedCrossRef 16. Mulec J, Podlesek Z, Mrak P, Kopitar A, Ihan A, Zgur-Bertok D: A cka-gfp transcriptional fusion reveals that the colicin K activity gene is induced in only 3 percent of the population. J Bacteriol 2003,185(2):654–659.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef 17. Butala M, Sonjak S, Kamensek S, Hodoscek M, Browning DF, Zgur-Bertok D, Busby SJW: Double locking of an Escherichia coli promoter by two repressors prevents premature colicin expression and cell lysis. Mol Microbiol 2012,86(1):129–139.PubMedCrossRef

18. Combet C, Blanchet C, Geourjon C, Deleage G: NPS@: network protein sequence analysis. Trends Biochem Sci 2000,25(3):147–150.PubMedCrossRef 19. Wang LJ, Brown SJ: BindN:

a web-based tool for efficient prediction of DNA and RNA binding sites in amino acid sequences. Nucleic Acids Res 2006, 34:W243-W248.PubMedCentralPubMedCrossRef www.selleckchem.com/products/nu7441.html 20. Craig WS: Determination of quaternary structure of an active enzyme using chemical cross-linking with glutaraldehyde. Methods Enzymol 1988, 156:333–345.PubMedCrossRef Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Authors’ contributions Conceived and designed the experiments: MČ ZP DŽB. Performed the experiments: MČ MB ZP. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: DŽB. Wrote the paper: MČ DŽB. All authors read and approved the Fenbendazole final manuscript.”
“Background Erwinia amylovora is the causative agent of fire blight, a destructive, contagious disease of apple, pear, and other rosaceous plants [1]. All aerial parts of the hosts can be infected by the pathogen. E. amylovora enters its host plants through natural openings (e.g., flower nectaries or leaf stomata) and wounds [2]. Upon entry, the fire blight pathogen moves through intercellular spaces towards the xylem [3]. Typical symptoms include flower necrosis, immature fruit rot, shoot curvature (shepherd’s crook), bacterial ooze secretion, and cankers on woody tissues [1]. The most effective method to treat infected plants is pruning to remove all infected tissue. However, fire blight can infect entire orchards within a single growing season leading to devastating economic losses [4].

Electronic supplementary material Additional file: Figure S1 – The phospholipid analysis Rigosertib of ASABF-α-susceptible strains and resistant strains. Strains N315, NKSB, NKSBv, and MRSA no. 33 are susceptible to ASABF-α, and strains NKSBm, MRSA no. 7, and Mu50 are resistant [33]. Cells were harvested at stationary phase. Lipids were extracted by the chloroform-methanol method without (A) or with (B) the lysostaphin treatment. Solvent system: chloroform-methanol-acetic acid (65:25:10; v/v/v). Mu50 has unusually thick cell walls (ref*) and required higher lysostaphin concentration for efficient CL extraction (data not shown). ref*: Cui, L., X. Ma, K. Sato, K. Okuma,

F. C. Tenover, E. M. Mamizuka, C. G. Gemmell, M. N. Kim, M. C. Ploy, N. El-Solh, V. Ferraz, and K. Hiramatsu. 2003. Cell wall thickening is a common feature of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol 41:5-14. (PDF 1 MB) References 1. Ito T, Okuma K, Ma XX, Yuzawa H, Hiramatsu K: Insights on antibiotic resistance of Staphylococcus aureus from

its whole genome: genomic island SCC. Drug Resist Updat 2003, 6 (1) : 41–52.PubMedCrossRef 2. McCallum N, Berger-Bachi B, Senn MM: Regulation of antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus . Int J Med Microbiol 2009, 300 (2–3) : 118–129.PubMedCrossRef 3. selleck screening library Chambers HF, Deleo FR: Waves of resistance: Staphylococcus aureus in the antibiotic era. Nat Rev Microbiol 2009, 7 (9) : 629–641.PubMedCrossRef 4. Clements MO, Foster SJ: Stress resistance in Staphylococcus aureus . Trends Microbiol 1999, 7 (11) : 458–462.PubMedCrossRef 5. Garzoni C, Kelley WL: Staphylococcus aureus : new evidence for intracellular persistence. Trends Microbiol 2009, 17 (2) : 59–65.PubMedCrossRef 6. Morikawa K, Ohniwa RL, Ohta T, Tanaka Y, Takeyasu K, Msadek T: Adaptation beyond the Stress Response: Cell Structure Dynamics and Population

Heterogeneity in Staphylococcus aureus . Microbs Environ 2010, 25 (2) : 75–82.CrossRef 7. Amin US, Lash TD, Wilkinson BJ: Proline betaine is a highly effective osmoprotectant for Staphylococcus aureus . Arch Microbiol 1995, 163 (2) Histone demethylase : 138–142.PubMedCrossRef 8. Graham JE, Wilkinson BJ: Staphylococcus aureus osmoregulation: roles for choline, glycine betaine, proline, and www.selleckchem.com/products/gs-9973.html taurine. JBacteriol 1992, 174 (8) : 2711–2716. 9. Miller KJ, Zelt SC, Bae J: Glycine betaine and proline are the principal compatible solutes of Staphylococcus aureus . Current Microbiology 1991, 23: 131–137.CrossRef 10. Peddie BA, Lever M, Randall K, Chambers ST: Osmoprotective activity, urea protection, and accumulation of hydrophilic betaines in Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus . Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1999, 75 (3) : 183–189.PubMedCrossRef 11. Wilkinson BJ: Biology. In The staphylococci in human disease. Edited by: Crossley KB, Archer GL. Churchill Livingstone; 1996:1–38. 12.

Results and discussion Structural and morphological characterization The morphology of the synthesized product was characterized by FESEM which is shown in Figure 2a,b. Low and high magnifications of FESEM images demonstrate that the composite material has rod-shape morphology with average cross section of approximately 300 nm. The nanorods are grown in high density. Figure 2 Typical (a) low-magnification

and (b) high-resolution FESEM images of composite nanorods. The crystallinity of composite nanorods was studied this website by X-ray powder diffraction, and the results are illustrated in Figure 3. XRD spectrum of the nanorods exhibited diffraction peaks associated to Ag (JCPDS # 04–0783), Ag2O3 (JCPDS # 40–909), and ZnO (JCPDS # 36–1451) with wurtzite hexagonal phase. All the attributed peaks are suited with Ag, Ag2O3, and ZnO. There is no additional impurity peak in X-ray diffraction spectrum which indicates that the prepared nanorods are well-crystalline composite

of Ag, Ag2O3, and ZnO. Figure 3 Typical XRD pattern of composite nanorods. The chemical structure of composite nanorods was evaluated by FT-IR spectroscopy, shown in Figure 4a. FT-IR spectrum RG7420 mw of composite nanorods is measured in the range of 400 to 4,000 cm−1 and shown in Figure 4a. FT-IR spectrum showed absorption at 508, 1,626, and 3,442 cm−1. The band centered at 3,442 cm−1 (O-H stretching) and 1,626 cm−1 (O-H bending) is attributed to EVP4593 mouse moister absorbed [1, 7]. The very intense and broad band centered at 508 cm−1 is responsible for M-O (M = Zn and Ag) bonds [9–12]. Figure 4 Typical FT-IR and

UV–vis spectra of composite nanorods. (a) Chemical structure, (b) optical property, and (c) bandgap energy E g of composite nanorods. The optical property of the composite nanorods is important assets which was studied using a UV–vis spectrophotometer and shown in Figure 4b. UV–vis absorption spectrum displayed absorption peak at 375 nm without other impurity peak. The bandgap energy E g of composite nanorods was found to be around 3.30 eV from the tangent drawn at linear plateau of curve (αhν) 2 vs. hν (Figure 4c). Figure 5 shows XPS spectrum of composite nanorods which gives information about the bonding configuration and composition of the synthesized nanorods. XPS spectrum of composite almost nanorods displayed photoelectron peaks for Ag 3d5/2, Ag 3d3/2, O 1 s, Zn 2p3/2, and Zn 2p1/2 at binding energies of 368.0, 374.0, 532.2, 1,023.1, and 1,046.1 eV, respectively, which specifies that composite nanorods contain oxygen, zinc, and silver. These results are similar to the reported values in literature [18, 19]. The XPS data reflect that composite nanorods are made of Ag, Ag2O3, and ZnO. Figure 5 XPS spectrum of composite nanorods. Chemical sensing properties Composite nanorods were employed for finding phenyl hydrazine by measuring the electrical response of phenyl hydrazine using I-V technique [1–3].

coli strains into two genetically distinct groups, which differ significantly in their pathogeniCity. However, the direct role of esterase B, or of its B1 and/or B2 allozymes, in the virulence process remains unknown. The aims of this study were (i) to identify the gene encoding esterase B, (ii) to analyse its polymorphic counterparts in relation to E. coli clonal structure, (iii) to identify a potential physical link between this genetic locus and regions known to be associated with pathogeniCity find more in the E. coli genome,

and (iv) to test a potential direct role of esterase B in virulence in a mouse model of extraintestinal infection. Results and Discussion The acetyl esterase gene (aes) encodes esterase B Seven candidate genes encoding proteins with predicted esterase activity were identified, based on their respective PM and pI values, using the MaGe system [14] (aes [15], yddV, glpQ, ndk, yzzH and cpdA). Of these, Aes exhibited several characteristics particularly reminiscent of esterase check details B: i) a major esterase domain, ii) a theoretical pI of 4.72 for the K-12 strain protein (esterase B1, pI ranging from 4.5 to 4.8) and 5.18 for CFT073 protein (esterase B2, pI ranging from 4.85 to 5.0), and iii) the presence of a serine in the active site [9].

The inactivation of aes by gene disruption in K-12 MG1655 and CFT073 strains and complementation of the mutant strains with the aes gene confirmed that Aes was esterase B (Additional file 1: Fig. S1 and data not shown). We then studied the correlation between Aes sequences and esterase B electrophoretic polymorphism. The comparison of the Aes phylogenetic tree with the theoretical and observed pI Selleck GW786034 values and the esterase B electrophoretic mobilities (Mf values) for the 72 ECOR strains [10] is shown in Fig. 1. Overall analysis of the tree confirmed separation of esterase B into two variants: esterase B1 and esterase B2. Indeed, the Aes tree showed a clear Tenofovir in vitro distinction between Aes from the phylogenetic group B2 strains and Aes proteins

from other strains, separated by a long branch, well supported by bootstrap (83%). Moreover, the characterisation of the phylogenetic group B2, based on Aes polymorphism, was consistent with the pI and Mf values of esterase B2 (pI: 4.85 to 5.0 and Mf 57 to Mf 62), which were previously demonstrated to be specific to the phylogenetic group B2. Likewise, the characterisation of the phylogenetic groups A, B1 and D, based on Aes polymorphism, correlated with the pI and Mf values of esterase B1 (pI: 4.60 to 4.80 and Mf 68 to Mf 72) [10]. Amino-acid substitutions detected from the branches of the Aes tree were analysed taking into account variation in esterase B mobility and pI values [16] (Fig. 1). In most cases, for the Aes phylogenetic group B2 strains, substitutions of acidic to neutral, neutral to basic or acidic to basic amino acids corresponded to increases in pI (from 4.85 to 5.

Phylogenetic analysis Phylogenetic and molecular evolutionary analyses were conducted using MEGA version 4 [54]. C. salexigens EupR and other LuxR family proteins including well characterized members of different subclasses with a common LuxR-C-like conserved domain

and others different domains were included in the phylogenetic analyses. We also included some uncharacterized proteins with a high similarity to C. salexigens EupR, including two paralogs present in C. salexigens genome. The sequences were aligned with clustalW (1.6) using a BLOSUM62 matrix and manually edited. The phylogenetic tree was inferred using the Neighbor-joining method [55] and the evolutionary distances were computed using the Poisson correction method. The rate Tipifarnib research buy selleckchem variation among sites was modelled with a gamma distribution (shape parameter = 1.5) and all the positions containing gaps and missing data were eliminated only in pairwise sequence comparisons. The robustness of the tree branches was assessed by performing bootstrap analysis of the Neighbor-joining data based on 1000 resamplings [56]. DNA and protein sequences analysis The sequence of the C. salexigens genome is available at NCBI microbial

genome database (http://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​genomes/​lproks.​cgi Ac N°: NC_007963). Sequence data were analyzed using PSI-BLAST at NCBI server http://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​BLAST. Promoter sequences were predicted using BGDP Neural Network Promoter Prediction

http://​www.​fruitfly.​org/​seq_​tools/​promoter.​html. Signal peptides and topology of proteins were predicted using SMART 6 (http://​smart.​embl-heidelberg.​de/​; [57, 58]). Other programs and databases Interleukin-3 receptor used in proteins topology and functional analysis were STRING 8.2 (http://​string.​embl.​de/​; [38]) KEGG (http://​www.​genome.​ad.​jp/​kegg/​pathway/​ko/​ko02020.​html; [59]), Signaling census (http://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​Complete_​Genomes/​SignalCensus.​html; [28, 29]), PROSITE (http://​www.​expasy.​org/​prosite/​; [60]), KU55933 in vitro BLOCKS (http://​blocks.​fhcrc.​org/​; [61]), Pfam (http://​pfam.​janelia.​org/​; [62]), CDD (http://​www.​ncbi.​nlm.​nih.​gov/​Structure/​cdd/​cdd.​shtml; [27]), InterProScan (http://​www.​ebi.​ac.​uk/​interpro/​; [63]), and Phobius (http://​www.​ebi.​ac.​uk/​Tools/​phobius/​; [64]). Acknowledgements This research was financially supported by grants from the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación (BIO2008-04117), and Junta de Andalucía (P08-CVI-03724). Javier Rodriguez-Moya and Mercedes Reina-Bueno were recipients of a fellowship from the Spanish Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. References 1. Bremer E, Krämer R: Coping with osmotic challenges: osmoregulation trough accumulation and release of compatible solutes in bacteria. In Bacterial Stress Responses. Edited by: Storz G, Hengge-Aronis R.

Fractionation of membrane preparations was achieved using sucrose density gradients

as previously described [39]. Immunoprecipitation Immunoprecipitations with EPEC cell lysates were performed as previously described [39]. Briefly, 500 ng of affinity purified polyclonal anti-CesT antibody was added to 50 μl of Protein A conjugated agarose beads (Invitrogen) followed by washing as directed by the manufacturer. The antibody-bead mixture was blocked in phosphate buffered saline (PBS, 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 4.3 mM Na2HPO4, 1.47 mM KH2PO4) supplemented with 1% (w/v) bovine serum albumin and then added to lysate preparations and incubated overnight at 4°C on a rotator. The samples MK0683 mouse were gently pelleted and the agarose beads were washed 3 times with PBS. The agarose beads were then exposed to 100 mM glycine (pH 2.2) to elute bound proteins and neutralized with 1 M Tris (pH 8.8) and then prepared for SDS-PAGE. Infection of HeLa cells HeLa cells [American Type Culture Collection (ATCC)] were seeded onto sterile glass coverslips at a density of 1 × 105 /ml, grown for 24 hrs and then infected with various EPEC strains at a multiplicity of infection of 50 for 3 hours. The infected HeLa cells were then prepared for microscopy as previously described [35]. Images were GSI-IX chemical structure detected using a Zeiss Axiovert 200 inverted

microscope and captured using a Hamamatsu ORCA-R2 digital camera. Microscopy based quantification of EPEC intimate adherence (binding index) was performed as previously selleckchem described [67]. Briefly, GFP positive bacteria (which were identified by GFP fluorescence) that were associated with actin pedestals were quantified. At least 50 cells were examined per sample. β-lactamase reporter assays Type III effector-TEM1 fusion reporter assays for EPEC strains were performed as previously described [42] with minor modifications. Briefly, HeLa cells (seeded to confluence in 96 well, black, clear bottom plates [Costar 3603]) were infected with a MOI of approximately 50 for 2 hours using bacteria that

had been pre-activated in DMEM +10% FBS for 2 hours at 37°C, 5% CO2. After 1 hour of infection, IPTG was added to a final concentration of 0.5 mM. The infected cells were gently washed twice with DMEM and then loaded with CCF2/AM using a Toxblazer kit (Invitrogen). The 96 3-oxoacyl-(acyl-carrier-protein) reductase well plate was incubated for 90 min in the dark and then placed in a Victor X plate reader (Perkin Elmer) set to read fluorescence using an excitation filter for 405 nm and emission filters for 460 nm (blue signal)/530 nm (green signal). Blue/green signal ratios and statistical significance (two sided Student’s t test) were calculated as previously described [42]. The presented data are mean values of the results from three experiments. Protein electrophoresis and Immunoblotting All protein samples were separated by SDS-PAGE as described [68].

The liver is very sensitive to PFT�� cell line Fas-induced apoptosis. Administration anti-Fas agonistic antibody Savolitinib Jo-2 to mice leads to rapid death of the animals due to fulminant hepatitis, mimicking certain forms of acute liver failure (ALF) in humans [5]. Fas (CD95/APO-1), a 43-kDa cell surface glycoprotein, belongs to the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, and mediates apoptosis upon binding with its cognate ligand, or artificially with specific agonistic antibodies. Communication between cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM) is achieved through integrins

and the associated integrin proximal adhesion molecules. Through multiple protein-protein interactions and signaling events, these molecules transmit signals from the ECM to the interior of the cell and regulate many fundamental cellular processes. Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) is a β1- and β3-integrin-interacting cell matrix adhesion protein that has been shown to be crucial for a number of cellular processes such as survival, differentiation, proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis [6–8]. Previous studies VX-689 clinical trial in our lab have shown that acute elimination of ILK by injection of adenovirus expressing Cre recombinase in the tail vein of ILKflox/flox mice led to massive hepatocyte apoptosis [9]. Genetic ablation of ILK also results in some degree of apoptosis

[10] but also to an enhancement of hepatocyte proliferation, suggesting that ILK might be playing a role in hepatocyte survival. This study was undertaken to test the role of ILK in hepatocyte survival and response to injury using a Jo-2-induced apoptosis model. Here we report that genetic ablation of ILK from hepatocytes protects from Jo-2 induced apoptosis due to upregulation of survival signaling mainly ERK and NFκB signaling. Methods Generation of liver specific ILK/liver-/- mice ILK floxed animals were generated as described previously [10] and donated by Drs. Niclosamide René St. Arnaud (Shriners Hospital and McGill University, Montréal) and Shoukat Deodhar (British Columbia Cancer Agency and Vancouver Hospital, Jack Bell Research Center, Vancouver),

and mated with AFP-enhancer-albumin-promoter-Cre-recombinase-expressing mice which were kindly provided by Dr. Klaus Kaestner (University of Pennsylvania). The off-spring were genotyped as described previously [11] and the ILK-floxed/floxed Cre-positive mice were considered to be ILK-knockout (ILK KO), while their Cre-negative siblings were used as controls. All animals were housed in the animal facility of the University of Pittsburgh in accordance with the guidelines of the Institutional Animal Use and Care Committee of the University of Pittsburgh. Induction of apoptosis For survival experiments, male 30 week-old ILK KO (n = 10) and control mice (n = 10) received a single intraperitoneal injection of the agonistic anti-Fas monoclonal antibody Jo-2 (BD Pharmingen, San Diego, CA) at the lethal dose (0.

1995).) The squared length of the transition dipole moment is proportional to the AZD6244 supplier extinction coefficient of the molecule for the given absorbance band. The specific transition dipole moment for the given transition determines not only the strength of the absorption but also the ability of the molecule to interact with polarized light, and sets the conditions for intermolecular interactions as well. For linearly

polarized light, the absorbance is proportional to the square of the scalar product of the electric vector (E) of the light and the transition dipole vector (μ), i.e., the absorbance is proportional to E 2 μ2 cos2 α, where α is the angle between the two vectors. This is the basis of all LD Tucidinostat mouse measurements. In circularly polarized light spectroscopy, i.e., for CD, the interaction between the light and the sample also depends, albeit often in a complex buy PND-1186 manner, on the orientations of the transition dipole moments of the molecules that compose the structure. Linearly and circularly polarized light: LD and CD measurements For linearly polarized light (often called plane-polarized light), the electric vector E (“the light vector”)

oscillates sinusoidally in a direction (plane) which is called the polarization direction (plane). For circularly polarized light, the magnitude of E remains constant, but it traces out a helix as a function of time. In accordance with the convention used in CD spectroscopy, in the right and the left circularly polarized light beams,

when viewed by an observer looking toward the light source, the end-point of E rotates clockwise and counterclockwise, respectively. (See supplemental Movie 1.) On using the principle of superposition, it can easily be shown that circularly and linearly polarized light beams can be represented as the sum of two orthogonal linearly polarized beams, in which the amplitudes are equal and the phases are shifted exactly by a quarter or a half of the wavelength, respectively (supplemental movie 1). This principle can be used for producing mafosfamide orthogonal linearly (e.g., vertically and horizontally) or circularly (left- and right-handed) polarized beams. In most commercially available dichrographs and home-built setups, this is done by using a photoelastic modulator (PEM) that operates at high frequency, typically at 50 kHz. In this way, the polarization state of the measuring beam is modulated sinusoidally. In order to measure the dichroism of the sample, the signal of the detector is demodulated by a proper circuit, usually an AC amplifier locked at the frequency and phase of the polarization modulation. This yields a difference, or differential polarization (DP) signal, ΔI.

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